This HOWTO tries to define how parts of the Linux Kernel work, what are the main functions and data structures used, and how the "wheel spins". You can find the latest version of this document at http://www.bertolinux.com If you have suggestions to help make this document better, please submit your ideas to me at the following address: [email protected]Code used within this document refers to the Linux Kernel version 2.4.x, which is the last stable kernel version at time of writing this HOWTO.
Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Roberto Arcomano. This document is free; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This document is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You can get a copy of the GNU GPL here
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When speaking about a function, we write:
"function_name [ file location . extension ]"
For example:
"schedule [kernel/sched.c]"
tells us that we talk about
"schedule"
function retrievable from file
[ kernel/sched.c ]
Note: We also assume /usr/src/linux as the starting directory.
Indentation in source code is 3 blank characters.
We use the"InterCallings Analysis "(ICA) to see (in an indented fashion) how kernel functions call each other.
For example, the sleep_on command is described in ICA below:
|sleep_on
|init_waitqueue_entry --
|__add_wait_queue | enqueuing request
|list_add |
|__list_add --
|schedule --- waiting for request to be executed
|__remove_wait_queue --
|list_del | dequeuing request
|__list_del --
sleep_on ICA
The indented ICA is followed by functions' locations:
Note: We don't specify anymore file location, if specified just before.
In an ICA a line like looks like the following
function1 -> function2
means that < function1 > is a generic pointer to another function. In this case < function1 > points to < function2 >.
When we write:
function:
it means that < function > is not a real function. It is a label (typically assembler label).
In many sections we may report a ''C'' code or a ''pseudo-code''. In real source files, you could use ''assembler'' or ''not structured'' code. This difference is for learning purposes.
The advantages of using ICA (InterCallings Analysis) are many:
As all theoretical models, we simplify reality avoiding many details, such as real source code and special conditions.
The kernel is the "core" of any computer system: it is the "software" which allows users to share computer resources.
The kernel can be thought as the main software of the OS (Operating System), which may also include graphics management.
For example, under Linux (like other Unix-like OSs), the XWindow environment doesn't belong to the Linux Kernel, because it manages only graphical operations (it uses user mode I/O to access video card devices).
By contrast, Windows environments (Win9x, WinME, WinNT, Win2K, WinXP, and so on) are a mix between a graphical environment and kernel.
Many years ago, when computers were as big as a room, users ran their applications with much difficulty and, sometimes, their applications crashed the computer.
To avoid having applications that constantly crashed, newer OSs were designed with 2 different operative modes:
| Applications /|\
| ______________ |
| | User Mode | |
| ______________ |
| | |
Implementation | _______ _______ | Abstraction
Detail | | Kernel Mode | |
| _______________ |
| | |
| | |
| | |
\|/ Hardware |
Kernel Mode "prevents" User Mode applications from damaging the system or its features.
Modern microprocessors implement in hardware at least 2 different states. For example under Intel, 4 states determine the PL (Privilege Level). It is possible to use 0,1,2,3 states, with 0 used in Kernel Mode.
Unix OS requires only 2 privilege levels, and we will use such a paradigm as point of reference.
Once we understand that there are 2 different modes, we have to know when we switch from one to the other.
Typically, there are 2 points of switching:
System calls are like special functions that manage OS routines which live in Kernel Mode.
A system call can be called when we:
| |
------->| System Call i | (Accessing Devices)
| | | | [sys_read()] |
| ... | | | |
| system_call(i) |-------- | |
| [read()] | | |
| ... | | |
| system_call(j) |-------- | |
| [get_pid()] | | | |
| ... | ------->| System Call j | (Accessing kernel data structures)
| | | [sys_getpid()]|
| |
USER MODE KERNEL MODE
Unix System Calls Working
System calls are almost the only interface used by User Mode to talk with low level resources (hardware). The only exception to this statement is when a process uses ''ioperm'' system call. In this case a device can be accessed directly by User Mode process (IRQs cannot be used).
NOTE: Not every ''C'' function is a system call, only some of them.
Below is a list of System Calls under Linux Kernel 2.4.17, from [ arch/i386/kernel/entry.S ]
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* 0 - old "setup()" system call*/
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_exit)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fork)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_read)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_write)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_open) /* 5 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_close)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_waitpid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_creat)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_link)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_unlink) /* 10 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_execve)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_chdir)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_time)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_mknod)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_chmod) /* 15 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_lchown16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* old break syscall holder */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_stat)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_lseek)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getpid) /* 20 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_mount)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_oldumount)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setuid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getuid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_stime) /* 25 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ptrace)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_alarm)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fstat)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_pause)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_utime) /* 30 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* old stty syscall holder */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* old gtty syscall holder */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_access)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_nice)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* 35 */ /* old ftime syscall holder */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sync)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_kill)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_rename)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_mkdir)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_rmdir) /* 40 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_dup)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_pipe)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_times)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* old prof syscall holder */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_brk) /* 45 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setgid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getgid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_signal)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_geteuid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getegid16) /* 50 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_acct)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_umount) /* recycled never used phys() */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* old lock syscall holder */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ioctl)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fcntl) /* 55 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* old mpx syscall holder */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setpgid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* old ulimit syscall holder */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_olduname)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_umask) /* 60 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_chroot)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ustat)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_dup2)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getppid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getpgrp) /* 65 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setsid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sigaction)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sgetmask)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ssetmask)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setreuid16) /* 70 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setregid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sigsuspend)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sigpending)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sethostname)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setrlimit) /* 75 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_old_getrlimit)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getrusage)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_gettimeofday)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_settimeofday)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getgroups16) /* 80 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setgroups16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(old_select)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_symlink)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_lstat)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_readlink) /* 85 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_uselib)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_swapon)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_reboot)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(old_readdir)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(old_mmap) /* 90 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_munmap)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_truncate)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ftruncate)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fchmod)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fchown16) /* 95 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getpriority)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setpriority)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* old profil syscall holder */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_statfs)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fstatfs) /* 100 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ioperm)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_socketcall)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_syslog)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setitimer)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getitimer) /* 105 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_newstat)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_newlstat)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_newfstat)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_uname)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_iopl) /* 110 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_vhangup)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* old "idle" system call */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_vm86old)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_wait4)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_swapoff) /* 115 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sysinfo)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ipc)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fsync)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sigreturn)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_clone) /* 120 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setdomainname)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_newuname)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_modify_ldt)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_adjtimex)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_mprotect) /* 125 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sigprocmask)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_create_module)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_init_module)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_delete_module)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_get_kernel_syms) /* 130 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_quotactl)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getpgid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fchdir)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_bdflush)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sysfs) /* 135 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_personality)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* for afs_syscall */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setfsuid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setfsgid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_llseek) /* 140 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getdents)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_select)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_flock)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_msync)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_readv) /* 145 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_writev)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getsid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fdatasync)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sysctl)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_mlock) /* 150 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_munlock)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_mlockall)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_munlockall)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sched_setparam)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sched_getparam) /* 155 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sched_setscheduler)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sched_getscheduler)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sched_yield)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sched_get_priority_max)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sched_get_priority_min) /* 160 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sched_rr_get_interval)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_nanosleep)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_mremap)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setresuid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getresuid16) /* 165 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_vm86)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_query_module)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_poll)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_nfsservctl)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setresgid16) /* 170 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getresgid16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_prctl)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_rt_sigreturn)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_rt_sigaction)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_rt_sigprocmask) /* 175 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_rt_sigpending)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_rt_sigtimedwait)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_rt_sigqueueinfo)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_rt_sigsuspend)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_pread) /* 180 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_pwrite)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_chown16)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getcwd)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_capget)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_capset) /* 185 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sigaltstack)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_sendfile)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* streams1 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* streams2 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_vfork) /* 190 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getrlimit)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_mmap2)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_truncate64)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ftruncate64)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_stat64) /* 195 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_lstat64)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fstat64)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_lchown)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getuid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getgid) /* 200 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_geteuid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getegid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setreuid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setregid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getgroups) /* 205 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setgroups)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fchown)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setresuid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getresuid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setresgid) /* 210 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getresgid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_chown)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setuid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setgid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setfsuid) /* 215 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_setfsgid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_pivot_root)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_mincore)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_madvise)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_getdents64) /* 220 */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_fcntl64)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* reserved for TUX */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_ni_syscall) /* Reserved for Security */
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_gettid)
.long SYMBOL_NAME(sys_readahead) /* 225 */
When an IRQ comes, the task that is running is interrupted in order to service the IRQ Handler.
After the IRQ is handled, control returns backs exactly to point of interrupt, like nothing happened.
Running Task
|-----------| (3)
NORMAL | | | [break execution] IRQ Handler
EXECUTION (1)| | | ------------->|---------|
| \|/ | | | does |
IRQ (2)---->| .. |-----> | some |
| | |<----- | work |
BACK TO | | | | | ..(4). |
NORMAL (6)| \|/ | <-------------|_________|
EXECUTION |___________| [return to code]
(5)
USER MODE KERNEL MODE
User->Kernel Mode Transition caused by IRQ event
The numbered steps below refer to the sequence of events in the diagram above:
Special interest has the Timer IRQ, coming every TIMER ms to manage:
The key point of modern OSs is the "Task". The Task is an application running in memory sharing all resources (included CPU and Memory) with other Tasks.
This "resource sharing" is managed by the "Multitasking Mechanism". The Multitasking Mechanism switches from one task to another after a "timeslice" time. Users have the "illusion" that they own all resources. We can also imagine a single user scenario, where a user can have the "illusion" of running many tasks at the same time.
To implement this multitasking, the task uses "the state" variable, which can be:
The task state is managed by its presence in a relative list: READY list and BLOCKED list.
The movement from one task to another is called ''Task Switching''. many computers have a hardware instruction which automatically performs this operation. Task Switching occurs in the following cases:
* We schedule another task to prevent "Busy Form Waiting", which occurs when we are waiting for a device instead performing other work.
Task Switching is managed by the "Schedule" entity.
Timer | |
IRQ | | Schedule
| | | ________________________
|----->| Task 1 |<------------------>|(1)Chooses a Ready Task |
| | | |(2)Task Switching |
| |___________| |________________________|
| | | /|\
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
|----->| Task 2 |<-------------------------------|
| | | |
| |___________| |
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
| | | |
| | | |
------>| Task N |<--------------------------------
| |
|___________|
Task Switching based on TimeSlice
A typical Timeslice for Linux is about 10 ms.
| |
| | Resource _____________________________
| Task 1 |----------->|(1) Enqueue Resource request |
| | Access |(2) Mark Task as blocked |
| | |(3) Choose a Ready Task |
|___________| |(4) Task Switching |
|_____________________________|
|
|
| | |
| | |
| Task 2 |<-------------------------
| |
| |
|___________|
Task Switching based on Waiting for a Resource
Until now we viewed so called Monolithic OS, but there is also another kind of OS: ''Microkernel''.
A Microkernel OS uses Tasks, not only for user mode processes, but also as a real kernel manager, like Floppy-Task, HDD-Task, Net-Task and so on. Some examples are Amoeba, and Mach.
PROS:
CONS:
My personal opinion is that, Microkernels are a good didactic example (like Minix) but they are not ''optimal'', so not really suitable. Linux uses a few Tasks, called "Kernel Threads" to implement a little microkernel structure (like kswapd, which is used to retrieve memory pages from mass storage). In this case there are no problems with perfomance because swapping is a very slow job.
Standard ISO-OSI describes a network architecture with the following levels:
The first 2 levels listed above are often implemented in hardware. Next levels are in software (or firmware for routers).
Many protocols are used by an OS: one of these is TCP/IP (the most important living on 3-4 levels).
The kernel doesn't know anything (only addresses) about first 2 levels of ISO-OSI.
In RX it:
frames packets sockets
NIC ---------> Kernel ----------> Application
| packets
--------------> Forward
- RX -
In TX stage it:
sockets packets frames
Application ---------> Kernel ----------> NIC
packets /|\
Forward -------------------
- TX -
Segmentation is the first method to solve memory allocation problems: it allows you to compile source code without caring where the application will be placed in memory. As a matter of fact, this feature helps applications developers to develop in a independent fashion from the OS e also from the hardware.
| Stack |
| | |
| \|/ |
| Free |
| /|\ | Segment <---> Process
| | |
| Heap |
| Data uninitialized |
| Data initialized |
| Code |
|____________________|
Segment
We can say that a segment is the logical entity of an application, or the image of the application in memory.
When programming, we don't care where our data is put in memory, we only care about the offset inside our segment (our application).
We use to assign a Segment to each Process and vice versa. In Linux this is not true. Linux uses only 4 segments for either Kernel and all Processes.
____________________
----->| |----->
| IN | Segment A | OUT
____________________ | |____________________|
| |____| | |
| Segment B | | Segment B |
| |____ | |
|____________________| | |____________________|
| | Segment C |
| |____________________|
----->| Segment D |----->
IN |____________________| OUT
Segmentation problem
In the diagram above, we want to get exit processes A, and D and enter process B. As we can see there is enough space for B, but we cannot split it in 2 pieces, so we CANNOT load it (memory out).
The reason this problem occurs is because pure segments are continuous areas (because they are logical areas) and cannot be split.
____________________
| Page 1 |
|____________________|
| Page 2 |
|____________________|
| .. | Segment <---> Process
|____________________|
| Page n |
|____________________|
| |
|____________________|
| |
|____________________|
Segment
Pagination splits memory in "n" pieces, each one with a fixed length.
A process may be loaded in one or more Pages. When memory is freed, all pages are freed (see Segmentation Problem, before).
Pagination is also used for another important purpose, "Swapping". If a page is not present in physical memory then it generates an EXCEPTION, that will make the Kernel search for a new page in storage memory. This mechanism allow OS to load more applications than the ones allowed by physical memory only.
____________________
Page X | Process Y |
|____________________|
| |
| WASTE |
| SPACE |
|____________________|
Pagination Problem
In the diagram above, we can see what is wrong with the pagination policy: when a Process Y loads into Page X, ALL memory space of the Page is allocated, so the remaining space at the end of Page is wasted.
How can we solve segmentation and pagination problems? Using either 2 policies.
| .. |
|____________________|
----->| Page 1 |
| |____________________|
| | .. |
____________________ | |____________________|
| | |---->| Page 2 |
| Segment X | ----| |____________________|
| | | | .. |
|____________________| | |____________________|
| | .. |
| |____________________|
|---->| Page 3 |
|____________________|
| .. |
Process X, identified by Segment X, is split in 3 pieces and each of one is loaded in a page.
We do not have:
| | | |
| | Offset2 | Value |
| | /|\| |
Offset1 | |----- | | |
/|\ | | | | | |
| | | | \|/| |
| | | ------>| |
\|/ | | | |
Base Paging Address ---->| | | |
| ....... | | ....... |
| | | |
Hierarchical Paging
We start the Linux kernel first from C code executed from ''startup_32:'' asm label:
|startup_32:
|start_kernel
|lock_kernel
|trap_init
|init_IRQ
|sched_init
|softirq_init
|time_init
|console_init
|#ifdef CONFIG_MODULES
|init_modules
|#endif
|kmem_cache_init
|sti
|calibrate_delay
|mem_init
|kmem_cache_sizes_init
|pgtable_cache_init
|fork_init
|proc_caches_init
|vfs_caches_init
|buffer_init
|page_cache_init
|signals_init
|#ifdef CONFIG_PROC_FS
|proc_root_init
|#endif
|#if defined(CONFIG_SYSVIPC)
|ipc_init
|#endif
|check_bugs
|smp_init
|rest_init
|kernel_thread
|unlock_kernel
|cpu_idle
The last function ''rest_init'' does the following:
In fact the start_kernel procedure never ends. It will execute cpu_idle routine endlessly.
Follows ''init'' description, which is the first Kernel Thread:
|init
|lock_kernel
|do_basic_setup
|mtrr_init
|sysctl_init
|pci_init
|sock_init
|start_context_thread
|do_init_calls
|(*call())-> kswapd_init
|prepare_namespace
|free_initmem
|unlock_kernel
|execve
Linux has some peculiarities that distinguish it from other OSs. These peculiarities include:
Points 4 and 5 give system administrators an enormous flexibility on system configuration from user mode allowing them to solve also critical kernel bugs or specific problems without have to reboot the machine. For example, if you needed to change something on a big server and you didn't want to make a reboot, you could prepare the kernel to talk with a module, that you'll write.
Linux doesn't use segmentation to distinguish Tasks from each other; it uses pagination. (Only 2 segments are used for all Tasks, CODE and DATA/STACK)
We can also say that an interTask page fault never occurs, because each Task uses a set of Page Tables that are different for each Task. There are some cases where different Tasks point to same Page Tables, like shared libraries: this is needed to reduce memory usage; remember that shared libraries are CODE only cause all datas are stored into actual Task stack.
Under the Linux kernel only 4 segments exist:
[syntax is ''Purpose [Segment]'']
Under Intel architecture, the segment registers used are:
So, every Task uses 0x23 for code and 0x2b for data/stack.
Under Linux 3 levels of pages are used, depending on the architecture. Under Intel only 2 levels are supported. Linux also supports Copy on Write mechanisms (please see Cap.10 for more information).
The answer is very very simple: interTask address conflicts cannot exist because they are impossible. Linear -> physical mapping is done by "Pagination", so it just needs to assign physical pages in an univocal fashion.
No. Page assigning is a dynamic process. We need a page only when a Task asks for it, so we choose it from free memory paging in an ordered fashion. When we want to release the page, we only have to add it to the free pages list.
Kernel pages have a problem: they can be allocated in a dynamic fashion but we cannot have a guarantee that they are in contiguous area allocation, because linear kernel space is equivalent to physical kernel space.
For Code Segment there is no problem. Boot code is allocated at boot time (so we have a fixed amount of memory to allocate), and on modules we only have to allocate a memory area which could contain module code.
The real problem is the stack segment because each Task uses some kernel stack pages. Stack segments must be contiguous (according to stack definition), so we have to establish a maximum limit for each Task's stack dimension. If we exceed this limit bad things happen. We overwrite kernel mode process data structures.
The structure of the Kernel helps us, because kernel functions are never:
Once we know N, and we know the average of static variables for all kernel functions, we can estimate a stack limit.
If you want to try the problem out, you can create a module with a function inside calling itself many times. After a fixed number of times, the kernel module will hang because of a page fault exception handler (typically write to a read-only page).
When an IRQ comes, task switching is deferred until later to get better performance. Some Task jobs (that could have to be done just after the IRQ and that could take much CPU in interrupt time, like building up a TCP/IP packet) are queued and will be done at scheduling time (once a time-slice will end).
In recent kernels (2.4.x) the softirq mechanisms are given to a kernel_thread: ''ksoftirqd_CPUn''. n stands for the number of CPU executing kernel_thread (in a monoprocessor system ''ksoftirqd_CPU0'' uses PID 3).
''cpu_raise_softirq'' is a routine that will wake_up ''ksoftirqd_CPU0'' kernel thread, to let it manage the enqueued job.
|cpu_raise_softirq
|__cpu_raise_softirq
|wakeup_softirqd
|wake_up_process
''__cpu_raise_softirq'' routine will set right bit in the vector describing softirq pending.
''wakeup_softirq'' uses ''wakeup_process'' to wake up ''ksoftirqd_CPU0'' kernel thread.
TODO: describing data structures involved in softirq mechanism.
When kernel thread ''ksoftirqd_CPU0'' has been woken up, it will execute queued jobs
The code of ''ksoftirqd_CPU0'' is (main endless loop):
for (;;) {
if (!softirq_pending(cpu))
schedule();
__set_current_state(TASK_RUNNING);
while (softirq_pending(cpu)) {
do_softirq();
if (current->need_resched)
schedule
}
__set_current_state(TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE)
}
Even though Linux is a monolithic OS, a few ''kernel threads'' exist to do housekeeping work.
These Tasks don't utilize USER memory; they share KERNEL memory. They also operate at the highest privilege (RING 0 on a i386 architecture) like any other kernel mode piece of code.
Kernel threads are created by ''kernel_thread [arch/i386/kernel/process]'' function, which calls ''clone'' [arch/i386/kernel/process.c] system call from assembler (which is a ''fork'' like system call):
int kernel_thread(int (*fn)(void *), void * arg, unsigned long flags)
{
long retval, d0;
__asm__ __volatile__(
"movl %%esp,%%esi\n\t"
"int $0x80\n\t" /* Linux/i386 system call */
"cmpl %%esp,%%esi\n\t" /* child or parent? */
"je 1f\n\t" /* parent - jump */
/* Load the argument into eax, and push it. That way, it does
* not matter whether the called function is compiled with
* -mregparm or not. */
"movl %4,%%eax\n\t"
"pushl %%eax\n\t"
"call *%5\n\t" /* call fn */
"movl %3,%0\n\t" /* exit */
"int $0x80\n"
"1:\t"
:"=&a" (retval), "=&S" (d0)
:"0" (__NR_clone), "i" (__NR_exit),
"r" (arg), "r" (fn),
"b" (flags | CLONE_VM)
: "memory");
return retval;
}
Once called, we have a new Task (usually with very low PID number, like 2,3, etc.) waiting for a very slow resource, like swap or usb event. A very slow resource is used because we would have a task switching overhead otherwise.
Below is a list of most common kernel threads (from ''ps x'' command):
PID COMMAND 1 init 2 keventd 3 kswapd 4 kreclaimd 5 bdflush 6 kupdated 7 kacpid 67 khubd
'init' kernel thread is the first process created, at boot time. It will call all other User Mode Tasks (from file /etc/inittab) like console daemons, tty daemons and network daemons (''rc'' scripts).
''kswapd'' is created by ''clone() [arch/i386/kernel/process.c]''
Initialisation routines:
|do_initcalls
|kswapd_init
|kernel_thread
|syscall fork (in assembler)
do_initcalls [init/main.c]
kswapd_init [mm/vmscan.c]
kernel_thread [arch/i386/kernel/process.c]
Linux Kernel modules are pieces of code (examples: fs, net, and hw driver) running in kernel mode that you can add at runtime.
The Linux core cannot be modularized: scheduling and interrupt management or core network, and so on.
Under "/lib/modules/KERNEL_VERSION/" you can find all the modules installed on your system.
To load a module, type the following:
insmod MODULE_NAME parameters example: insmod ne io=0x300 irq=9
NOTE: You can use modprobe in place of insmod if you want the kernel automatically search some parameter (for example when using PCI driver, or if you have specified parameter under /etc/conf.modules file).
To unload a module, type the following:
rmmod MODULE_NAME
A module always contains:
If these functions are not in the module, you need to add 2 macros to specify what functions will act as init and exit module:
NOTE: a module can "see" a kernel variable only if it has been exported (with macro EXPORT_SYMBOL).
// kernel sources side
void (*foo_function_pointer)(void *);
if (foo_function_pointer)
(foo_function_pointer)(parameter);
// module side
extern void (*foo_function_pointer)(void *);
void my_function(void *parameter) {
//My code
}
int init_module() {
foo_function_pointer = &my_function;
}
int cleanup_module() {
foo_function_pointer = NULL;
}
This simple trick allows you to have very high flexibility in your Kernel, because only when you load the module you'll make "my_function" routine execute. This routine will do everything you want to do: for example ''rshaper'' module, which controls bandwidth input traffic from the network, works in this kind of matter.
Notice that the whole module mechanism is possible thanks to some global variables exported to modules, such as head list (allowing you to extend the list as much as you want). Typical examples are fs, generic devices (char, block, net, telephony). You have to prepare the kernel to accept your new module; in some cases you have to create an infrastructure (like telephony one, that was recently created) to be as standard as possible.
Proc fs is located in the /proc directory, which is a special directory allowing you to talk directly with kernel.
Linux uses ''proc'' directory to support direct kernel communications: this is necessary in many cases, for example when you want see main processes data structures or enable ''proxy-arp'' feature on one interface and not in others, you want to change max number of threads, or if you want to debug some bus state, like ISA or PCI, to know what cards are installed and what I/O addresses and IRQs are assigned to them.
|-- bus | |-- pci | | |-- 00 | | | |-- 00.0 | | | |-- 01.0 | | | |-- 07.0 | | | |-- 07.1 | | | |-- 07.2 | | | |-- 07.3 | | | |-- 07.4 | | | |-- 07.5 | | | |-- 09.0 | | | |-- 0a.0 | | | `-- 0f.0 | | |-- 01 | | | `-- 00.0 | | `-- devices | `-- usb |-- cmdline |-- cpuinfo |-- devices |-- dma |-- dri | `-- 0 | |-- bufs | |-- clients | |-- mem | |-- name | |-- queues | |-- vm | `-- vma |-- driver |-- execdomains |-- filesystems |-- fs |-- ide | |-- drivers | |-- hda -> ide0/hda | |-- hdc -> ide1/hdc | |-- ide0 | | |-- channel | | |-- config | | |-- hda | | | |-- cache | | | |-- capacity | | | |-- driver | | | |-- geometry | | | |-- identify | | | |-- media | | | |-- model | | | |-- settings | | | |-- smart_thresholds | | | `-- smart_values | | |-- mate | | `-- model | |-- ide1 | | |-- channel | | |-- config | | |-- hdc | | | |-- capacity | | | |-- driver | | | |-- identify | | | |-- media | | | |-- model | | | `-- settings | | |-- mate | | `-- model | `-- via |-- interrupts |-- iomem |-- ioports |-- irq | |-- 0 | |-- 1 | |-- 10 | |-- 11 | |-- 12 | |-- 13 | |-- 14 | |-- 15 | |-- 2 | |-- 3 | |-- 4 | |-- 5 | |-- 6 | |-- 7 | |-- 8 | |-- 9 | `-- prof_cpu_mask |-- kcore |-- kmsg |-- ksyms |-- loadavg |-- locks |-- meminfo |-- misc |-- modules |-- mounts |-- mtrr |-- net | |-- arp | |-- dev | |-- dev_mcast | |-- ip_fwchains | |-- ip_fwnames | |-- ip_masquerade | |-- netlink | |-- netstat | |-- packet | |-- psched | |-- raw | |-- route | |-- rt_acct | |-- rt_cache | |-- rt_cache_stat | |-- snmp | |-- sockstat | |-- softnet_stat | |-- tcp | |-- udp | |-- unix | `-- wireless |-- partitions |-- pci |-- scsi | |-- ide-scsi | | `-- 0 | `-- scsi |-- self -> 2069 |-- slabinfo |-- stat |-- swaps |-- sys | |-- abi | | |-- defhandler_coff | | |-- defhandler_elf | | |-- defhandler_lcall7 | | |-- defhandler_libcso | | |-- fake_utsname | | `-- trace | |-- debug | |-- dev | | |-- cdrom | | | |-- autoclose | | | |-- autoeject | | | |-- check_media | | | |-- debug | | | |-- info | | | `-- lock | | `-- parport | | |-- default | | | |-- spintime | | | `-- timeslice | | `-- parport0 | | |-- autoprobe | | |-- autoprobe0 | | |-- autoprobe1 | | |-- autoprobe2 | | |-- autoprobe3 | | |-- base-addr | | |-- devices | | | |-- active | | | `-- lp | | | `-- timeslice | | |-- dma | | |-- irq | | |-- modes | | `-- spintime | |-- fs | | |-- binfmt_misc | | |-- dentry-state | | |-- dir-notify-enable | | |-- dquot-nr | | |-- file-max | | |-- file-nr | | |-- inode-nr | | |-- inode-state | | |-- jbd-debug | | |-- lease-break-time | | |-- leases-enable | | |-- overflowgid | | `-- overflowuid | |-- kernel | | |-- acct | | |-- cad_pid | | |-- cap-bound | | |-- core_uses_pid | | |-- ctrl-alt-del | | |-- domainname | | |-- hostname | | |-- modprobe | | |-- msgmax | | |-- msgmnb | | |-- msgmni | | |-- osrelease | | |-- ostype | | |-- overflowgid | | |-- overflowuid | | |-- panic | | |-- printk | | |-- random | | | |-- boot_id | | | |-- entropy_avail | | | |-- poolsize | | | |-- read_wakeup_threshold | | | |-- uuid | | | `-- write_wakeup_threshold | | |-- rtsig-max | | |-- rtsig-nr | | |-- sem | | |-- shmall | | |-- shmmax | | |-- shmmni | | |-- sysrq | | |-- tainted | | |-- threads-max | | `-- version | |-- net | | |-- 802 | | |-- core | | | |-- hot_list_length | | | |-- lo_cong | | | |-- message_burst | | | |-- message_cost | | | |-- mod_cong | | | |-- netdev_max_backlog | | | |-- no_cong | | | |-- no_cong_thresh | | | |-- optmem_max | | | |-- rmem_default | | | |-- rmem_max | | | |-- wmem_default | | | `-- wmem_max | | |-- ethernet | | |-- ipv4 | | | |-- conf | | | | |-- all | | | | | |-- accept_redirects | | | | | |-- accept_source_route | | | | | |-- arp_filter | | | | | |-- bootp_relay | | | | | |-- forwarding | | | | | |-- log_martians | | | | | |-- mc_forwarding | | | | | |-- proxy_arp | | | | | |-- rp_filter | | | | | |-- secure_redirects | | | | | |-- send_redirects | | | | | |-- shared_media | | | | | `-- tag | | | | |-- default | | | | | |-- accept_redirects | | | | | |-- accept_source_route | | | | | |-- arp_filter | | | | | |-- bootp_relay | | | | | |-- forwarding | | | | | |-- log_martians | | | | | |-- mc_forwarding | | | | | |-- proxy_arp | | | | | |-- rp_filter | | | | | |-- secure_redirects | | | | | |-- send_redirects | | | | | |-- shared_media | | | | | `-- tag | | | | |-- eth0 | | | | | |-- accept_redirects | | | | | |-- accept_source_route | | | | | |-- arp_filter | | | | | |-- bootp_relay | | | | | |-- forwarding | | | | | |-- log_martians | | | | | |-- mc_forwarding | | | | | |-- proxy_arp | | | | | |-- rp_filter | | | | | |-- secure_redirects | | | | | |-- send_redirects | | | | | |-- shared_media | | | | | `-- tag | | | | |-- eth1 | | | | | |-- accept_redirects | | | | | |-- accept_source_route | | | | | |-- arp_filter | | | | | |-- bootp_relay | | | | | |-- forwarding | | | | | |-- log_martians | | | | | |-- mc_forwarding | | | | | |-- proxy_arp | | | | | |-- rp_filter | | | | | |-- secure_redirects | | | | | |-- send_redirects | | | | | |-- shared_media | | | | | `-- tag | | | | `-- lo | | | | |-- accept_redirects | | | | |-- accept_source_route | | | | |-- arp_filter | | | | |-- bootp_relay | | | | |-- forwarding | | | | |-- log_martians | | | | |-- mc_forwarding | | | | |-- proxy_arp | | | | |-- rp_filter | | | | |-- secure_redirects | | | | |-- send_redirects | | | | |-- shared_media | | | | `-- tag | | | |-- icmp_echo_ignore_all | | | |-- icmp_echo_ignore_broadcasts | | | |-- icmp_ignore_bogus_error_responses | | | |-- icmp_ratelimit | | | |-- icmp_ratemask | | | |-- inet_peer_gc_maxtime | | | |-- inet_peer_gc_mintime | | | |-- inet_peer_maxttl | | | |-- inet_peer_minttl | | | |-- inet_peer_threshold | | | |-- ip_autoconfig | | | |-- ip_conntrack_max | | | |-- ip_default_ttl | | | |-- ip_dynaddr | | | |-- ip_forward | | | |-- ip_local_port_range | | | |-- ip_no_pmtu_disc | | | |-- ip_nonlocal_bind | | | |-- ipfrag_high_thresh | | | |-- ipfrag_low_thresh | | | |-- ipfrag_time | | | |-- neigh | | | | |-- default | | | | | |-- anycast_delay | | | | | |-- app_solicit | | | | | |-- base_reachable_time | | | | | |-- delay_first_probe_time | | | | | |-- gc_interval | | | | | |-- gc_stale_time | | | | | |-- gc_thresh1 | | | | | |-- gc_thresh2 | | | | | |-- gc_thresh3 | | | | | |-- locktime | | | | | |-- mcast_solicit | | | | | |-- proxy_delay | | | | | |-- proxy_qlen | | | | | |-- retrans_time | | | | | |-- ucast_solicit | | | | | `-- unres_qlen | | | | |-- eth0 | | | | | |-- anycast_delay | | | | | |-- app_solicit | | | | | |-- base_reachable_time | | | | | |-- delay_first_probe_time | | | | | |-- gc_stale_time | | | | | |-- locktime | | | | | |-- mcast_solicit | | | | | |-- proxy_delay | | | | | |-- proxy_qlen | | | | | |-- retrans_time | | | | | |-- ucast_solicit | | | | | `-- unres_qlen | | | | |-- eth1 | | | | | |-- anycast_delay | | | | | |-- app_solicit | | | | | |-- base_reachable_time | | | | | |-- delay_first_probe_time | | | | | |-- gc_stale_time | | | | | |-- locktime | | | | | |-- mcast_solicit | | | | | |-- proxy_delay | | | | | |-- proxy_qlen | | | | | |-- retrans_time | | | | | |-- ucast_solicit | | | | | `-- unres_qlen | | | | `-- lo | | | | |-- anycast_delay | | | | |-- app_solicit | | | | |-- base_reachable_time | | | | |-- delay_first_probe_time | | | | |-- gc_stale_time | | | | |-- locktime | | | | |-- mcast_solicit | | | | |-- proxy_delay | | | | |-- proxy_qlen | | | | |-- retrans_time | | | | |-- ucast_solicit | | | | `-- unres_qlen | | | |-- route | | | | |-- error_burst | | | | |-- error_cost | | | | |-- flush | | | | |-- gc_elasticity | | | | |-- gc_interval | | | | |-- gc_min_interval | | | | |-- gc_thresh | | | | |-- gc_timeout | | | | |-- max_delay | | | | |-- max_size | | | | |-- min_adv_mss | | | | |-- min_delay | | | | |-- min_pmtu | | | | |-- mtu_expires | | | | |-- redirect_load | | | | |-- redirect_number | | | | `-- redirect_silence | | | |-- tcp_abort_on_overflow | | | |-- tcp_adv_win_scale | | | |-- tcp_app_win | | | |-- tcp_dsack | | | |-- tcp_ecn | | | |-- tcp_fack | | | |-- tcp_fin_timeout | | | |-- tcp_keepalive_intvl | | | |-- tcp_keepalive_probes | | | |-- tcp_keepalive_time | | | |-- tcp_max_orphans | | | |-- tcp_max_syn_backlog | | | |-- tcp_max_tw_buckets | | | |-- tcp_mem | | | |-- tcp_orphan_retries | | | |-- tcp_reordering | | | |-- tcp_retrans_collapse | | | |-- tcp_retries1 | | | |-- tcp_retries2 | | | |-- tcp_rfc1337 | | | |-- tcp_rmem | | | |-- tcp_sack | | | |-- tcp_stdurg | | | |-- tcp_syn_retries | | | |-- tcp_synack_retries | | | |-- tcp_syncookies | | | |-- tcp_timestamps | | | |-- tcp_tw_recycle | | | |-- tcp_window_scaling | | | `-- tcp_wmem | | `-- unix | | `-- max_dgram_qlen | |-- proc | `-- vm | |-- bdflush | |-- kswapd | |-- max-readahead | |-- min-readahead | |-- overcommit_memory | |-- page-cluster | `-- pagetable_cache |-- sysvipc | |-- msg | |-- sem | `-- shm |-- tty | |-- driver | | `-- serial | |-- drivers | |-- ldisc | `-- ldiscs |-- uptime `-- version
In the directory there are also all the tasks using PID as file names (you have access to all Task information, like path of binary file, memory used, and so on).
The interesting point is that you cannot only see kernel values (for example, see info about any task or about network options enabled of your TCP/IP stack) but you are also able to modify some of it, typically that ones under /proc/sys directory:
/proc/sys/
acpi
dev
debug
fs
proc
net
vm
kernel
Below are very important and well-know kernel values, ready to be modified:
overflowgid overflowuid random threads-max // Max number of threads, typically 16384 sysrq // kernel hack: you can view istant register values and more sem msgmnb msgmni msgmax shmmni shmall shmmax rtsig-max rtsig-nr modprobe // modprobe file location printk ctrl-alt-del cap-bound panic domainname // domain name of your Linux box hostname // host name of your Linux box version // date info about kernel compilation osrelease // kernel version (i.e. 2.4.5) ostype // Linux!
This can be considered the most useful proc subdirectory. It allows you to change very important settings for your network kernel configuration.
core ipv4 ipv6 unix ethernet 802
Listed below are general net settings, like "netdev_max_backlog" (typically 300), the length of all your network packets. This value can limit your network bandwidth when receiving packets, Linux has to wait up to scheduling time to flush buffers (due to bottom half mechanism), about 1000/HZ ms
300 * 100 = 30 000 packets HZ(Timeslice freq) packets/s 30 000 * 1000 = 30 M packets average (Bytes/packet) throughput Bytes/s
If you want to get higher throughput, you need to increase netdev_max_backlog, by typing:
echo 4000 > /proc/sys/net/core/netdev_max_backlog
Note: Warning for some HZ values: under some architecture (like alpha or arm-tbox) it is 1000, so you can have 300 MBytes/s of average throughput.
"ip_forward", enables or disables ip forwarding in your Linux box. This is a generic setting for all devices, you can specify each device you choose.
I think this is the most useful /proc entry, because it allows you to change some net settings to support wireless networks (see Wireless-HOWTO for more information).
Here are some examples of when you could use this setting:
This section will analyze data structures--the mechanism used to manage multitasking environment under Linux.
A Linux Task can be one of the following states (according to [include/linux.h]):
______________ CPU Available ______________
| | ----------------> | |
| TASK_RUNNING | | Real Running |
|______________| <---------------- |______________|
CPU Busy
| /|\
Waiting for | | Resource
Resource | | Available
\|/ |
______________________
| |
| TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE / |
| TASK-UNINTERRUPTIBLE |
|______________________|
Main Multitasking Flow
Each 10 ms (depending on HZ value) an IRQ0 comes, which helps us in a multitasking environment. This signal comes from PIC 8259 (in arch 386+) which is connected to PIT 8253 with a clock of 1.19318 MHz.
_____ ______ ______
| CPU |<------| 8259 |------| 8253 |
|_____| IRQ0 |______| |___/|\|
|_____ CLK 1.193.180 MHz
// From include/asm/param.h
#ifndef HZ
#define HZ 100
#endif
// From include/asm/timex.h
#define CLOCK_TICK_RATE 1193180 /* Underlying HZ */
// From include/linux/timex.h
#define LATCH ((CLOCK_TICK_RATE + HZ/2) / HZ) /* For divider */
// From arch/i386/kernel/i8259.c
outb_p(0x34,0x43); /* binary, mode 2, LSB/MSB, ch 0 */
outb_p(LATCH & 0xff , 0x40); /* LSB */
outb(LATCH >> 8 , 0x40); /* MSB */
So we program 8253 (PIT, Programmable Interval Timer) with LATCH = (1193180/HZ) = 11931.8 when HZ=100 (default). LATCH indicates the frequency divisor factor.
LATCH = 11931.8 gives to 8253 (in output) a frequency of 1193180 / 11931.8 = 100 Hz, so period = 10ms
So Timeslice = 1/HZ.
With each Timeslice we temporarily interrupt current process execution (without task switching), and we do some housekeeping work, after which we'll return back to our previous process.
Linux Timer IRQ
IRQ 0 [Timer]
|
\|/
|IRQ0x00_interrupt // wrapper IRQ handler
|SAVE_ALL ---
|do_IRQ | wrapper routines
|handle_IRQ_event ---
|handler() -> timer_interrupt // registered IRQ 0 handler
|do_timer_interrupt
|do_timer
|jiffies++;
|update_process_times
|if (--counter <= 0) { // if time slice ended then
|counter = 0; // reset counter
|need_resched = 1; // prepare to reschedule
|}
|do_softirq
|while (need_resched) { // if necessary
|schedule // reschedule
|handle_softirq
|}
|RESTORE_ALL
Functions can be found under:
Notes:
Description:
To manage Multitasking, Linux (like every other Unix) uses a ''counter'' variable to keep track of how much CPU was used by the task. So, on each IRQ 0, the counter is decremented (point 4) and, when it reaches 0, we need to switch task to manage timesharing (point 4 "need_resched" variable is set to 1, then, in point 5 assembler routines control "need_resched" and call, if needed, "schedule" [kernel/sched.c]).
The scheduler is the piece of code that chooses what Task has to be executed at a given time.
Any time you need to change running task, select a candidate. Below is the ''schedule [kernel/sched.c]'' function.
|schedule
|do_softirq // manages post-IRQ work
|for each task
|calculate counter
|prepare_to__switch // does anything
|switch_mm // change Memory context (change CR3 value)
|switch_to (assembler)
|SAVE ESP
|RESTORE future_ESP
|SAVE EIP
|push future_EIP *** push parameter as we did a call
|jmp __switch_to (it does some TSS work)
|__switch_to()
..
|ret *** ret from call using future_EIP in place of call address
new_task
In classic Unix, when an IRQ comes (from a device), Unix makes "task switching" to interrogate the task that requested the device.
To improve performance, Linux can postpone the non-urgent work until later, to better manage high speed event.
This feature is managed since kernel 1.x by the "bottom half" (BH). The irq handler "marks" a bottom half, to be executed later, in scheduling time.
In the latest kernels there is a "task queue"that is more dynamic than BH and there is also a "tasklet" to manage multiprocessor environments.
BH schema is:
#define DECLARE_TASK_QUEUE(q) LIST_HEAD(q)
#define LIST_HEAD(name) \
struct list_head name = LIST_HEAD_INIT(name)
struct list_head {
struct list_head *next, *prev;
};
#define LIST_HEAD_INIT(name) { &(name), &(name) }
''DECLARE_TASK_QUEUE'' [include/linux/tqueue.h, include/linux/list.h]
"DECLARE_TASK_QUEUE(q)" macro is used to declare a structure named "q" managing task queue.
Here is the ICA schema for "mark_bh" [include/linux/interrupt.h] function:
|mark_bh(NUMBER)
|tasklet_hi_schedule(bh_task_vec + NUMBER)
|insert into tasklet_hi_vec
|__cpu_raise_softirq(HI_SOFTIRQ)
|soft_active |= (1 << HI_SOFTIRQ)
''mark_bh''[include/linux/interrupt.h]
For example, when an IRQ handler wants to "postpone" some work, it would "mark_bh(NUMBER)", where NUMBER is a BH declarated (see section before).
We can see this calling from "do_IRQ" [arch/i386/kernel/irq.c] function:
|do_softirq
|h->action(h)-> softirq_vec[TASKLET_SOFTIRQ]->action -> tasklet_action
|tasklet_vec[0].list->func
"h->action(h);" is the function has been previously queued.
set_intr_gate
set_trap_gate
set_task_gate (not used).
(*interrupt)[NR_IRQS](void) = { IRQ0x00_interrupt, IRQ0x01_interrupt, ..}
NR_IRQS = 224 [kernel 2.4.2]
Now we'll see how the Linux Kernel switchs from one task to another.
Task Switching is needed in many cases, such as the following:
TASK SWITCHING TRICK
#define switch_to(prev,next,last) do { \
asm volatile("pushl %%esi\n\t" \
"pushl %%edi\n\t" \
"pushl %%ebp\n\t" \
"movl %%esp,%0\n\t" /* save ESP */ \
"movl %3,%%esp\n\t" /* restore ESP */ \
"movl $1f,%1\n\t" /* save EIP */ \
"pushl %4\n\t" /* restore EIP */ \
"jmp __switch_to\n" \
"1:\t" \
"popl %%ebp\n\t" \
"popl %%edi\n\t" \
"popl %%esi\n\t" \
:"=m" (prev->thread.esp),"=m" (prev->thread.eip), \
"=b" (last) \
:"m" (next->thread.esp),"m" (next->thread.eip), \
"a" (prev), "d" (next), \
"b" (prev)); \
} while (0)
Trick is here:
U S E R M O D E K E R N E L M O D E
| | | | | | | |
| | | | Timer | | | |
| | | Normal | IRQ | | | |
| | | Exec |------>|Timer_Int.| | |
| | | | | | .. | | |
| | | \|/ | |schedule()| | Task1 Ret|
| | | | |_switch_to|<-- | Address |
|__________| |__________| | | | | |
| | |S | |
Task1 Data/Stack Task1 Code | | |w | |
| | T|i | |
| | a|t | |
| | | | | | s|c | |
| | | | Timer | | k|h | |
| | | Normal | IRQ | | |i | |
| | | Exec |------>|Timer_Int.| |n | |
| | | | | | .. | |g | |
| | | \|/ | |schedule()| | | Task2 Ret|
| | | | |_switch_to|<-- | Address |
|__________| |__________| |__________| |__________|
Task2 Data/Stack Task2 Code Kernel Code Kernel Data/Stack
Fork is used to create another task. We start from a Task Parent, and we copy many data structures to Task Child.
| |
| .. |
Task Parent | |
| | | |
| fork |---------->| CREATE |
| | /| NEW |
|_________| / | TASK |
/ | |
--- / | |
--- / | .. |
/ | |
Task Child /
| | /
| fork |<-/
| |
|_________|
Fork SysCall
New Task just created (''Task Child'') is almost equal to Parent (''Task Parent''), there are only few differences:
|sys_fork
|do_fork
|alloc_task_struct
|__get_free_pages
|p->state = TASK_UNINTERRUPTIBLE
|copy_flags
|p->pid = get_pid
|copy_files
|copy_fs
|copy_sighand
|copy_mm // should manage CopyOnWrite (I part)
|allocate_mm
|mm_init
|pgd_alloc -> get_pgd_fast
|get_pgd_slow
|dup_mmap
|copy_page_range
|ptep_set_wrprotect
|clear_bit // set page to read-only
|copy_segments // For LDT
|copy_thread
|childregs->eax = 0
|p->thread.esp = childregs // child fork returns 0
|p->thread.eip = ret_from_fork // child starts from fork exit
|retval = p->pid // parent fork returns child pid
|SET_LINKS // insertion of task into the list pointers
|nr_threads++ // Global variable
|wake_up_process(p) // Now we can wake up just created child
|return retval
fork ICA
To implement Copy on Write for Linux:
| Page
| Fault
| Exception
|
|
-----------> |do_page_fault
|handle_mm_fault
|handle_pte_fault
|do_wp_page
|alloc_page // Allocate a new page
|break_cow
|copy_cow_page // Copy old page to new one
|establish_pte // reconfig Page Table pointers
|set_pte
Page Fault ICA
Linux uses segmentation + pagination, which simplifies notation.
Linux uses only 4 segments:
__
4 GB--->| | |
| Kernel | | Kernel Space (Code + Data/Stack)
| | __|
3 GB--->|----------------| __
| | |
| | |
2 GB--->| | |
| Tasks | | User Space (Code + Data/Stack)
| | |
1 GB--->| | |
| | |
|________________| __|
0x00000000
Kernel/User Linear addresses
Again, Linux implements Pagination using 3 Levels of Paging, but in i386 architecture only 2 of them are really used:
------------------------------------------------------------------
L I N E A R A D D R E S S
------------------------------------------------------------------
\___/ \___/ \_____/
PD offset PF offset Frame offset
[10 bits] [10 bits] [12 bits]
| | |
| | ----------- |
| | | Value |----------|---------
| | | | |---------| /|\ | |
| | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | Frame offset |
| | | | | | \|/ |
| | | | |---------|<------ |
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | x 4096 |
| | | PF offset|_________|------- |
| | | /|\ | | |
PD offset |_________|----- | | | _________|
/|\ | | | | | | |
| | | | \|/ | | \|/
_____ | | | ------>|_________| PHYSICAL ADDRESS
| | \|/ | | x 4096 | |
| CR3 |-------->| | | |
|_____| | ....... | | ....... |
| | | |
Page Directory Page File
Linux i386 Paging
Linux manages Access Control with Pagination only, so different Tasks will have the same segment addresses, but different CR3 (register used to store Directory Page Address), pointing to different Page Entries.
In User mode a task cannot overcome 3 GB limit (0 x C0 00 00 00), so only the first 768 page directory entries are meaningful (768*4MB = 3GB).
When a Task goes in Kernel Mode (by System call or by IRQ) the other 256 pages directory entries become important, and they point to the same page files as all other Tasks (which are the same as the Kernel).
Note that Kernel (and only kernel) Linear Space is equal to Kernel Physical Space, so:
________________ _____
|Other KernelData|___ | | |
|----------------| | |__| |
| Kernel |\ |____| Real Other |
3 GB --->|----------------| \ | Kernel Data |
| |\ \ | |
| __|_\_\____|__ Real |
| Tasks | \ \ | Tasks |
| __|___\_\__|__ Space |
| | \ \ | |
| | \ \|----------------|
| | \ |Real KernelSpace|
|________________| \|________________|
Logical Addresses Physical Addresses
Linear Kernel Space corresponds to Physical Kernel Space translated 3 GB down (in fact page tables are something like { "00000000", "00000001" }, so they operate no virtualization, they only report physical addresses they take from linear ones).
Notice that you'll not have an "addresses conflict" between Kernel and User spaces because we can manage physical addresses with Page Tables.
We start from kmem_cache_init (launched by start_kernel [init/main.c] at boot up).
|kmem_cache_init |kmem_cache_estimate
kmem_cache_init [mm/slab.c]
kmem_cache_estimate
Now we continue with mem_init (also launched by start_kernel[init/main.c])
|mem_init
|free_all_bootmem
|free_all_bootmem_core
mem_init [arch/i386/mm/init.c]
free_all_bootmem [mm/bootmem.c]
free_all_bootmem_core
Under Linux, when we want to allocate memory, for example during "copy_on_write" mechanism (see Cap.10), we call:
|copy_mm
|allocate_mm = kmem_cache_alloc
|__kmem_cache_alloc
|kmem_cache_alloc_one
|alloc_new_slab
|kmem_cache_grow
|kmem_getpages
|__get_free_pages
|alloc_pages
|alloc_pages_pgdat
|__alloc_pages
|rmqueue
|reclaim_pages
Functions can be found under:
TODO: Understand Zones
Swap is managed by the kswapd daemon (kernel thread).
As other kernel threads, kswapd has a main loop that wait to wake up.
|kswapd
|// initialization routines
|for (;;) { // Main loop
|do_try_to_free_pages
|recalculate_vm_stats
|refill_inactive_scan
|run_task_queue
|interruptible_sleep_on_timeout // we sleep for a new swap request
|}
Swapping is needed when we have to access a page that is not in physical memory.
Linux uses ''kswapd'' kernel thread to carry out this purpose. When the Task receives a page fault exception we do the following:
| Page Fault Exception
| cause by all these conditions:
| a-) User page
| b-) Read or write access
| c-) Page not present
|
|
-----------> |do_page_fault
|handle_mm_fault
|pte_alloc
|pte_alloc_one
|__get_free_page = __get_free_pages
|alloc_pages
|alloc_pages_pgdat
|__alloc_pages
|wakeup_kswapd // We wake up kernel thread kswapd
Page Fault ICA
There exists a device driver for each kind of NIC. Inside it, Linux will ALWAYS call a standard high level routing: "netif_rx [net/core/dev.c]", which will controls what 3 level protocol the frame belong to, and it will call the right 3 level function (so we'll use a pointer to the function to determine which is right).
We'll see now an example of what happens when we send a TCP packet to Linux, starting from ''netif_rx [net/core/dev.c]'' call.
|netif_rx
|__skb_queue_tail
|qlen++
|* simple pointer insertion *
|cpu_raise_softirq
|softirq_active(cpu) |= (1 << NET_RX_SOFTIRQ) // set bit NET_RX_SOFTIRQ in the BH vector
Functions:
Once IRQ interaction is ended, we need to follow the next part of the frame life and examine what NET_RX_SOFTIRQ does.
We will next call ''net_rx_action [net/core/dev.c]'' according to "net_dev_init [net/core/dev.c]".
|net_rx_action
|skb = __skb_dequeue (the exact opposite of __skb_queue_tail)
|for (ptype = first_protocol; ptype < max_protocol; ptype++) // Determine
|if (skb->protocol == ptype) // what is the network protocol
|ptype->func -> ip_rcv // according to ''struct ip_packet_type [net/ipv4/ip_output.c]''
**** NOW WE KNOW THAT PACKET IS IP ****
|ip_rcv
|NF_HOOK (ip_rcv_finish)
|ip_route_input // search from routing table to determine function to call
|skb->dst->input -> ip_local_deliver // according to previous routing table check, destination is local machine
|ip_defrag // reassembles IP fragments
|NF_HOOK (ip_local_deliver_finish)
|ipprot->handler -> tcp_v4_rcv // according to ''tcp_protocol [include/net/protocol.c]''
**** NOW WE KNOW THAT PACKET IS TCP ****
|tcp_v4_rcv
|sk = __tcp_v4_lookup
|tcp_v4_do_rcv
|switch(sk->state)
*** Packet can be sent to the task which uses relative socket ***
|case TCP_ESTABLISHED:
|tcp_rcv_established
|__skb_queue_tail // enqueue packet to socket
|sk->data_ready -> sock_def_readable
|wake_up_interruptible
*** Packet has still to be handshaked by 3-way TCP handshake ***
|case TCP_LISTEN:
|tcp_v4_hnd_req
|tcp_v4_search_req
|tcp_check_req
|syn_recv_sock -> tcp_v4_syn_recv_sock
|__tcp_v4_lookup_established
|tcp_rcv_state_process
*** 3-Way TCP Handshake ***
|switch(sk->state)
|case TCP_LISTEN: // We received SYN
|conn_request -> tcp_v4_conn_request
|tcp_v4_send_synack // Send SYN + ACK
|tcp_v4_synq_add // set SYN state
|case TCP_SYN_SENT: // we received SYN + ACK
|tcp_rcv_synsent_state_process
tcp_set_state(TCP_ESTABLISHED)
|tcp_send_ack
|tcp_transmit_skb
|queue_xmit -> ip_queue_xmit
|ip_queue_xmit2
|skb->dst->output
|case TCP_SYN_RECV: // We received ACK
|if (ACK)
|tcp_set_state(TCP_ESTABLISHED)
Functions can be found under:
Description:
SERVER (LISTENING) CLIENT (CONNECTING)
SYN
<-------------------
SYN + ACK
------------------->
ACK
<-------------------
3-Way TCP handshake
TODO
Here we view how "stack" and "heap" are allocated in memory
FF.. | | <-- bottom of the stack
/|\ | | |
higher | | | | stack
values | | | \|/ growing
| |
XX.. | | <-- top of the stack [Stack Pointer]
| |
| |
| |
00.. |_________________| <-- end of stack [Stack Segment]
Stack
Memory address values start from 00.. (which is also where Stack Segment begins) and they grow going toward FF.. value.
XX.. is the actual value of the Stack Pointer.
Stack is used by functions for:
For example, for a classical function:
|int foo_function (parameter_1, parameter_2, ..., parameter_n) {
|variable_1 declaration;
|variable_2 declaration;
..
|variable_n declaration;
|// Body function
|dynamic variable_1 declaration;
|dynamic variable_2 declaration;
..
|dynamic variable_n declaration;
|// Code is inside Code Segment, not Data/Stack segment!
|return (ret-type) value; // often it is inside some register, for i386 eax register is used.
|}
we have
| |
| 1. parameter_1 pushed | \
S | 2. parameter_2 pushed | | Before
T | ................... | | the calling
A | n. parameter_n pushed | /
C | ** Return address ** | -- Calling
K | 1. local variable_1 | \
| 2. local variable_2 | | After
| ................. | | the calling
| n. local variable_n | /
| |
... ... Free
... ... stack
| |
H | n. dynamic variable_n | \
E | ................... | | Allocated by
A | 2. dynamic variable_2 | | malloc & kmalloc
P | 1. dynamic variable_1 | /
|_______________________|
Typical stack usage
Note: variables order can be different depending on hardware architecture.
We have to distinguish 2 concepts:
Often Process is also called Task or Thread.
2 kind of locks:
Copy_on_write is a mechanism used to reduce memory usage. It postpones memory allocation until the memory is really needed.
For example, when a task executes the "fork()" system call (to create another task), we still use the same memory pages as the parent, in read only mode. When a task WRITES into the page, it causes an exception and the page is copied and marked "rw" (read, write).
1-) Page X is shared between Task Parent and Task Child
Task Parent
| | RO Access ______
| |---------->|Page X|
|_________| |______|
/|\
|
Task Child |
| | RO Access |
| |----------------
|_________|
2-) Write request
Task Parent
| | RO Access ______
| |---------->|Page X| Trying to write
|_________| |______|
/|\
|
Task Child |
| | RO Access |
| |----------------
|_________|
3-) Final Configuration: Either Task Parent and Task Child have an independent copy of the Page, X and Y
Task Parent
| | RW Access ______
| |---------->|Page X|
|_________| |______|
Task Child
| | RW Access ______
| |---------->|Page Y|
|_________| |______|
bbootsect.s [arch/i386/boot] setup.S (+video.S) head.S (+misc.c) [arch/i386/boot/compressed] start_kernel [init/main.c]
Descriptors are data structure used by Intel microprocessor i386+ to virtualize memory.
IRQ is an asyncronous signal sent to microprocessor to advertise a requested work is completed
|<--> IRQ(0) [Timer]
|<--> IRQ(1) [Device 1]
| ..
|<--> IRQ(n) [Device n]
_____________________________|
/|\ /|\ /|\
| | |
\|/ \|/ \|/
Task(1) Task(2) .. Task(N)
IRQ - Tasks Interaction Schema
A typical O.S. uses many IRQ signals to interrupt normal process execution and does some housekeeping work. So:
Under Linux, when an IRQ comes, first the IRQ wrapper routine (named "interrupt0x??") is called, then the "official" IRQ(i)_handler will be executed. This allows some duties like timeslice preemption.
Definition:
#define list_entry(ptr, type, member) \ ((type *)((char *)(ptr)-(unsigned long)(&((type *)0)->member)))
Meaning:
"list_entry" macro is used to retrieve a parent struct pointer, by using only one of internal struct pointer.
Example:
struct __wait_queue {
unsigned int flags;
struct task_struct * task;
struct list_head task_list;
};
struct list_head {
struct list_head *next, *prev;
};
// and with type definition:
typedef struct __wait_queue wait_queue_t;
// we'll have
wait_queue_t *out list_entry(tmp, wait_queue_t, task_list);
// where tmp point to list_head
So, in this case, by means of *tmp pointer [list_head] we retrieve an *out pointer [wait_queue_t].
____________ <---- *out [we calculate that] |flags | /|\ |task *--> | | |task_list |<---- list_entry | prev * -->| | | | next * -->| | | |____________| ----- *tmp [we have this]
Files:
Functions:
Called functions:
InterCallings Analysis:
|sleep_on
|init_waitqueue_entry --
|__add_wait_queue | enqueuing request to resource list
|list_add |
|__list_add --
|schedule --- waiting for request to be executed
|__remove_wait_queue --
|list_del | dequeuing request from resource list
|__list_del --
Description:
Under Linux each resource (ideally an object shared between many users and many processes), , has a queue to manage ALL tasks requesting it.
This queue is called "wait queue" and it consists of many items we'll call the"wait queue element":
*** wait queue structure [include/linux/wait.h] ***
struct __wait_queue {
unsigned int flags;
struct task_struct * task;
struct list_head task_list;
}
struct list_head {
struct list_head *next, *prev;
};
Graphic working:
*** wait queue element ***
/|\
|
<--[prev *, flags, task *, next *]-->
*** wait queue list ***
/|\ /|\ /|\ /|\
| | | |
--> <--[task1]--> <--[task2]--> <--[task3]--> .... <--[taskN]--> <--
| |
|__________________________________________________________________|
*** wait queue head ***
task1 <--[prev *, lock, next *]--> taskN
"wait queue head" point to first (with next *) and last (with prev *) elements of the "wait queue list".
When a new element has to be added, "__add_wait_queue" [include/linux/wait.h] is called, after which the generic routine "list_add" [include/linux/wait.h], will be executed:
*** function list_add [include/linux/list.h] ***
// classic double link list insert
static __inline__ void __list_add (struct list_head * new, \
struct list_head * prev, \
struct list_head * next) {
next->prev = new;
new->next = next;
new->prev = prev;
prev->next = new;
}
To complete the description, we see also "__list_del" [include/linux/list.h] function called by "list_del" [include/linux/list.h] inside "remove_wait_queue" [include/linux/wait.h]:
*** function list_del [include/linux/list.h] ***
// classic double link list delete
static __inline__ void __list_del (struct list_head * prev, struct list_head * next) {
next->prev = prev;
prev->next = next;
}
A typical list (or queue) is usually managed allocating it into the Heap (see Cap.10 for Heap and Stack definition and about where variables are allocated). Otherwise here, we statically allocate Wait Queue data in a local variable (Stack), then function is interrupted by scheduling, in the end, (returning from scheduling) we'll erase local variable.
new task <----| task1 <------| task2 <------|
| | |
| | |
|..........| | |..........| | |..........| |
|wait.flags| | |wait.flags| | |wait.flags| |
|wait.task_|____| |wait.task_|____| |wait.task_|____|
|wait.prev |--> |wait.prev |--> |wait.prev |-->
|wait.next |--> |wait.next |--> |wait.next |-->
|.. | |.. | |.. |
|schedule()| |schedule()| |schedule()|
|..........| |..........| |..........|
|__________| |__________| |__________|
Stack Stack Stack
Linux is written in ''C'' language, and as every application has:
When a Static variable is modified by a module, all other modules will see the new value.
Static variables under Linux are very important, cause they are the only kind to add new support to kernel: they typically are pointers to the head of a list of registered elements, which can be:
_______ _______ _______
Global variable -------> |Item(1)| -> |Item(2)| -> |Item(3)| ..
|_______| |_______| |_______|
________________
Current ----------------> | Actual process |
|________________|
Current points to ''task_struct'' structure, which contains all data about a process like:
Current is not a real variable, it is
static inline struct task_struct * get_current(void) {
struct task_struct *current;
__asm__("andl %%esp,%0; ":"=r" (current) : "0" (~8191UL));
return current;
}
#define current get_current()
Above lines just takes value of ''esp'' register (stack pointer) and get it available like a variable, from which we can point to our task_struct structure.
From ''current'' element we can access directly to any other process (ready, stopped or in any other state) kernel data structure, for example changing STATE (like a I/O driver does), PID, presence in ready list or blocked list, etc.
______ _______ ______
file_systems ------> | ext2 | -> | msdos | -> | ntfs |
[fs/super.c] |______| |_______| |______|
When you use command like ''modprobe some_fs'' you will add a new entry to file systems list, while removing it (by using ''rmmod'') will delete it.
______ _______ ______
mount_hash_table ---->| / | -> | /usr | -> | /var |
[fs/namespace.c] |______| |_______| |______|
When you use ''mount'' command to add a fs, the new entry will be inserted in the list, while an ''umount'' command will delete the entry.
______ _______ ______
ptype_all ------>| ip | -> | x25 | -> | ipv6 |
[net/core/dev.c] |______| |_______| |______|
For example, if you add support for IPv6 (loading relative module) a new entry will be added in the list.
______ _______ _______
inet_protocol_base ----->| icmp | -> | tcp | -> | udp |
[net/ipv4/protocol.c] |______| |_______| |_______|
Also others packet type have many internal protocols in each list (like IPv6).
______ _______ _______
inet6_protos ----------->|icmpv6| -> | tcpv6 | -> | udpv6 |
[net/ipv6/protocol.c] |______| |_______| |_______|
______ _______ _______
dev_base --------------->| lo | -> | eth0 | -> | ppp0 |
[drivers/core/Space.c] |______| |_______| |_______|
______ _______ ________
chrdevs ---------------->| lp | -> | keyb | -> | serial |
[fs/devices.c] |______| |_______| |________|
''chrdevs'' is not a pointer to a real list, but it is a standard vector.
______ ______ ________
bdev_hashtable --------->| fd | -> | hd | -> | scsi |
[fs/block_dev.c] |______| |______| |________|
''bdev_hashtable'' is an hash vector.
Official Linux kernels and patches download site
Great documentation about Linux Kernel
Linux Documentation Project Guides